The Biography of The President Gamal Abdel Nasser
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein (January 15, 1918 – September 28, 1970) was an Egyptian military officer and politician who served as the second president of the Republic of Egypt from 1956 until he died in 1970. he is the leader of the Arab Socialist Union, which calls for Arab unity. he is one of the leaders of the July 23 revolution that overthrew King Farouk (The Last de facto ruler from the Muhammad Ali family) and turned the regime of Egypt into a presidential republic. Nasser served as deputy prime minister in its new government. Before the revolution, Nasser was a member of the Young Egypt Party, which advocated socialism. After the revolution, Nasser resigned from his post in the army and became prime minister. Then, he was elected president of the Republic on June 25, 1956, according to a referendum held on June 23, 1956. After an assassination attempt on him in 1954 by a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, the organization was banned and suppressed, and President Mohamed Naguib was placed under house arrest and assumed the executive post.
Nasser's unbiased policies during the Cold War strained relations with the Western powers who withdrew their funding for the High Dam, which Nasser was planning to build. Nasser responded by nationalizing the Suez Canal Company in 1956, which was well-received within Egypt and the Arab world. Thus, Britain, France, and Israel occupied the Sinai but withdrew amid international pressure; this significantly strengthened Nasser's political position. Since then, Nasser's popularity in the region has grown significantly, and calls for Arab unity have increased under his leadership, partially achieved by the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria (1958 - 1961). In 1962, Nasser initiated a series of socialist decisions and modernization reforms in Egypt. Despite the setbacks to his Arab nationalist cause, by 1963, Nasser's supporters had come to power in several Arab countries. Nasser supported the Yemeni September 26 revolution at the time. Nasser began his second presidential term in March 1965 after being elected unopposed. This was followed by the defeat of Egypt by Israel in the June War of 1967. Nasser resigned from all his political positions due to this defeat but retracted his resignation after mass demonstrations demanded his return to the presidency. Between 1967 and 1968, Nasser appointed himself prime minister in addition to his post as president of the Republic and waged a war of attrition to regain the territories lost in the 1967 war. He initiated the depoliticization of the military and promulgated a set of liberal political reforms.
After the conclusion of the Arab League summit in 1970, Nasser died of a heart attack. His funeral in Cairo was attended by more than five million people. His supporters nowadays consider him a symbol of Arab dignity, unity, and anti-imperialist efforts; while his opponents call him an autocrat, criticizing his government's human rights violations. Nasser was subjected to several assassination attempts in his life, including an assassination attempt in the Manshiyya neighborhood of Alexandria in 1954 attributed to a member of the Muslim Brotherhood, the group denied its connection with the incident. Nasser then ordered a security campaign against the Muslim Brotherhood. Nasser is considered one of the most prominent figures of the Middle East in the twentieth century.
His upbringing,
Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein Khalil Sultan Al-Marri was born on January 15, 1918, in his father's House No. 12 Kanaat Street in the Bakos neighborhood of Alexandria just before the events of the 1919 revolution in Egypt. He is from a Qahtan Arab Saidi family, where his father was born in the village of Bani Mer in Assiut Governorate, grew up in Alexandria, and worked as an agent for the Bakos post office there, and he married Mrs. "Fahima", who was born in Malawi, Minya, Gamal Abdel Nasser was the first of his parents ' sons. His parents had married in 1917 and had two sons after him, Izz al-Arab and al-Laithi. Nasser's biographers Robert Stephens and Saeed Abu al-Rish say that Nasser's family believed in the idea of "Arab glory", and this is evidenced by the name of Nasser's brother, Izz al-Arab, and this is a rare name in Egypt.
The family traveled often because of the work of Gamal Abdel Nasser's father. In 1921, they moved to Assiut, and in 1923 they moved to Khatataba. Nasser attended kindergarten in Haram Bey in Alexandria, then attended primary school in Khatataba between the years 1923 and 1924, in 1925 Gamal entered the El Nahassine Primary School in El Gamaliya in Cairo, and stayed with his uncle Khalil Hussein for three years, Gamal traveled to visit his family in Alexandria only during school holidays.
Gamal Abdel Nasser in Saudi Arabia with King Faisal bin Abdulaziz Al Saud.
Nasser had been exchanging letters with his mother, but the letters stopped in April 1926, and when he returned to Khattaba he learned that his mother had died weeks before after giving birth to his third brother Shawqi, and no one dared to tell him about it. Nasser later said that:
Jamal Abdul Nasser the loss of my mother was in itself a very sad thing, losing her in this way was, and not saying goodbye to her was a shock that was left in an indelible feeling over time, and my pains and sorrows over that time made me find great reluctance to inflict pain and sorrows on others in the future years Jamal Abdul Nasser, Nasser's grief deepened when his father married before the end of this year.
After Gamal completed their third year at the nahassin school in Cairo, his father sent him to his maternal grandfather in the summer of 1928, and he spent the fourth year of elementary school at the El Attarin school in Alexandria.
Gamal Abdel Nasser joined the internal department at Helwan Secondary School and spent one year there, then transferred the following year (1930) to Ras El-Tin School in Alexandria after his father moved to work in the Postal Service there. He then learned that this protest was organized by the Young Egypt Association, and this protest was denouncing English colonialism in Egypt, following a decision by the then prime minister Ismail Sedki to cancel the Constitution of 1923, Abdel Nasser was arrested and detained for one night before his father took him out.
Nasser's name is in the Jihad newspaper
When his father moved to Cairo in 1933, Nasser joined him there, enrolled in Ennahda High School in Cairo's Daher district, acted in several school plays, and wrote articles in the school magazine, including an article about the French philosopher Voltaire entitled "Voltaire, a man of freedom". On 13 November 1935, Nasser led a student demonstration against British rule in protest against the statement made four days earlier by Samuel Hoare, the British foreign secretary, declaring Britain's rejection of the return of constitutional life in Egypt. Two protesters were killed and Nasser was wounded in the forehead by a bullet from an English officer. His colleagues rushed him to the House of al-Jihad newspaper, next to which the incident happened, and his name was published in the next morning's issue among the names of the wounded. On December 12, the new King, Farouk, issued a decree restoring the Constitution.
Nasser's political activity grew even more throughout his school years, as he attended only 45 days during his senior year of high school. Nasser strongly objected to the British-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, which provided for the continued presence of British military forces in the country, and the political forces of Egypt supported this treaty almost unanimously. As a result, the political unrest in Egypt significantly decreased, and Nasser resumed his studies at the Nahda school, where he received his graduation certificate later that year.
Early influences,
Abu al-Rish confirms that Nasser did not show any discomfort due to his frequent transfers and that this matter expanded his horizons and made him get acquainted with the various strata of Egyptian society. Nasser belonged to the popular class, which lived in much more difficult conditions than the elite wealthy class, so he was not satisfied with the rich and influential, and his resentment of this category grew as the years passed. Nasser spent most of his free time reading, especially in 1933 when he was living near the National House of Books and documents. He read the Koran, the sayings of the Prophet Muhammad and the lives of companions, biographies of nationalist leaders Napoleon, Ataturk, Otto von Bismarck, Garibaldi, and the biography of Winston Churchill.
Nasser was greatly influenced by Egyptian nationalism, which was embraced by the politician Mustafa Kamel, the poet Ahmed Shawky, and his instructor at the Military College, Aziz Al-Masri, to whom Nasser expressed gratitude in a newspaper interview in 1961. Nasser was deeply influenced by the novel "The Return of the Soul" by the Egyptian writer Tawfik Al-Hakim, in which Tawfik Al-Hakim said that the Egyptian people just needed "a human being who would represent all their feelings and desires, and who would be for them a symbol of their goal". This novel was the inspiration for Nasser to launch the 1952 revolution.
Military Life,
In 1937, Nasser applied to the Military College to train army officers, but the police registered his participation in anti-government protests, he was banned from entering the college, so he enrolled in the Faculty of law at King Fouad University (now Cairo University), but resigned after one semester and re-applied to join the Military College. Nasser was able to meet the minister of war Ibrahim Khairy Pasha, and asked for his help, and he agreed to join the Military College in March 1937, Nasser focused on his military career since then and became connected with his family a little. At college, he met Abdul Hakim Amer and Anwar Sadat, both of whom became important assistants to him during his presidency. Graduating from the Military College in July 1937, Nasser was promoted to the rank of second lieutenant in the infantry corps.
In 1941, Nasser requested a transfer to Sudan, and there he met Abdul Hakim Amer, Sudan was then part of Egypt. Gamal Abdel Nasser returned from Sudan in September 1942 and then got a job as an instructor at the Royal Military Academy in Cairo in May 1943.
In 1942, Miles Lampson, the British ambassador, marched into the palace of King Farouk and surrounded him with tanks, ordering him to dismiss Prime Minister Hussein Seri Pasha, because of his sympathies with the Axis forces. Nasser saw the incident as a flagrant violation of Egyptian sovereignty, he said about it:
Gamal Abdel Nasser I am ashamed that our army did not issue any reaction against this attack Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nasser was accepted into the General Staff College later that year. Nasser began to form a group of young army officers with strong nationalist sentiments. Nasser kept in touch with the members of the group through Abdel Hakim Amer, and Abdel Nasser continued to search for interested officers in various branches of the Egyptian Armed Forces.
The Palestine War,
Nasser's first battle was in Palestine during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Nasser initially volunteered to serve on the Arab Higher Committee led by Mohammad Amin al-Husseini, and Nasser had met and admired Al-Husseini. But the entry of the troops of the Arab Higher Committee into the war was refused by the Egyptian government, for unclear reasons.
In May 1948, King Farouk sent the Egyptian army to Palestine, and Nasser served in the Sixth Infantry Battalion. During the war, Nasser wrote about the unpreparedness of the Egyptian army, saying:
Gamal Abdel Nasser our soldiers squandered in front of the fortifications Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nasser was the deputy commander of the Egyptian forces responsible for securing Fallujah. Nasser was slightly wounded in the fighting on July 12. By August, Nasser and his division were besieged by the IDF, but the division refused to surrender. Negotiations between Israel and Egypt finally led to the cession of Fallujah to Israel. According to Eric Margolis, a veteran journalist, the Egyptian troops endured heavy shelling in Fallujah, although they were isolated from their command. The defenders, including the officer Gamal Abdel Nasser, became national heroes at that time.
The Egyptian singer Umm Kulthum hosted the public celebration of the return of the officers despite the reservations of the Royal government, which had been pressured by the British government to prevent the reception, and this increased Nasser's determination to overthrow the monarchy. Nasser began writing the "philosophy of the revolution" during the siege.
After the war, Nasser returned to his job as a teacher at the Royal Military Academy, and sent envoys to the Muslim Brotherhood, forming an alliance with it in October 1948, but then he became convinced that the Brotherhood's agenda was incompatible with his nationalism and began the struggle to prevent the Brotherhood's influence on his activities. Nasser was sent as a member of the Egyptian delegation to Rhodes in February 1949 to negotiate a formal truce with Israel, and Nasser says that he considered the terms of the truce humiliating, especially because the Israelis were able to easily occupy the Eilat region while negotiating with the Arabs in March 1949.
Revolution,
Nasser's return to Egypt coincided with the coup of Hosni the leader in Syria. His apparent success encouraged Nasser in his revolutionary endeavors. Shortly after his return, prime minister Ibrahim Abdul Hadi summoned Nasser for questioning regarding suspicions that a secret group of opposition officers had been formed; Nasser convincingly denied these allegations, Abdul Hadi was also reluctant to take drastic measures against the army, especially in front of his chief of staff, who was present during the interrogation, and Nasser was later released. This interrogation prompted Nasser to accelerate the activities of his group.
After 1949, the group adopted the name "Movement of Free Officers". Nasser organized the" founding committee of the Free Officers", consisting of fourteen men from various political and social backgrounds, including representatives of the Egyptian youth, the Muslim Brotherhood, the Egyptian Communist Party, and the aristocracy. Nasser was elected chairman of the committee unanimously.
In the 1950 parliamentary elections, the Wafd Party won a majority of seats, due to the absence of the Muslim Brotherhood, who boycotted the elections. Accusations of corruption against Wafd Party politicians began to surface, and rumors and suspicions spread about them, bringing the Free Officers to the forefront of Egyptian political life. By that time, the number of members of the association had increased to 90, and according to Khalid Mohieddin:
Gamal Abdel Nasser no one knew all the members and their place in the hierarchy of the association except Nasser Gamal Abdel Nasser
Nasser saw that the Free Officers were not ready to move against the government, and for almost two years his activity remained limited to recruiting officers and publishing secret publications.
On October 11, 1951, the Wafd Government abrogated the British-Egyptian Treaty of 1936, which gave Britain control of the Suez Canal until 1956. According to Anwar Sadat:
Gamal Abdel Nasser Nasser then decided to launch a" large-scale assassination campaign " Gamal Abdel Nasser
In January 1952, Nasser and Hassan Ibrahim tried to kill Hussein Seri Amer with their machine guns, while he was driving through the streets of Cairo, and instead of killing the officer, one of the attackers wounded an innocent passer-by. Nasser stated that he cried for this, and this made him change his mind.
Sri Aamer was close to King Farouk and was nominated for the presidency of the officers ' club. Nasser was determined for the independence of the army from the monarchy, and Mohammed Naguib was asked to join the Free Officers by Abdul Hakim Amer. Muhammad Najib was a popular officer, who submitted his resignation to King Farouk in 1942 and was wounded three times in the Palestine War.
23 July Revolution,
On January 25, 1952, a confrontation between British troops and the Ismailia police led to the shooting deaths of forty Egyptian policemen, and riots broke out in Cairo the next day, killing 76 people. After that, Nasser published a six-point program for Egypt in the magazine Rose Youssef to dismantle feudalism and eliminate British influence. In May 1952, Nasser received word that King Farouk had found out the names of the Free Officers and would arrest them, so Nasser immediately entrusted the task of planning the seizure of the government to Zakaria Mohieddin, with the help of army units loyal to the association.
The Free Officers were saying that their intention was not to install themselves in the government, but to re-establish a parliamentary democratic state. Nasser did not believe that a low-ranking officer like him (Muqaddam) would be accepted by the Egyptian people, and therefore chose Mohamed Naguib to be the leader of the revolution (nominally). The revolution was launched on July 22 (disambiguation) and its success was announced the next day. The Free Officers seized all government buildings, radio stations, police stations, as well as the army headquarters in Cairo. Many rebel officers were leading their units, and Nasser wore civilian clothes to avoid capture by the monarchy. In a move to ward off foreign interference, Nasser told the United States and the British government two days before the Revolution about his intentions and agreed with them not to help Farouk. Under pressure from America, Nasser agreed to exile the deposed king with a tribute ceremony.
On June 18, 1953, the monarchy was abolished and a republic was proclaimed in Egypt, Naguib was its first president, according to Abu al-Rish: after taking power, Nasser and the Free Officers became "guardians of the interests of the people" against the monarchy and the pashawat class. They asked former prime minister Ali Maher to accept his reappointment to his previous position and to form the entire cabinet of civilians. The Free Officers ruled as the "Revolutionary Command Council" with Mohamed Naguib as president and Gamal Abdel Nasser as vice president. Nasser carried out many reforms such as the agrarian reform law, the abolition of the monarchy, and the reorganization of political parties. Maher resigned on September 7 (issue). Najib assumed the additional role of prime minister, and Nasser as deputy prime minister. And in September, the agrarian reform law was put into effect. From Nasser's point of view, this law gave the Revolutionary Command Council its identity and turned the coup into a revolution.
Before the implementation of the agrarian reform law, in August 1952, Communist-led riots broke out in the textile factories in Kafr El-Dawar, which led to the clash of the army with them, killing 8 soldiers and 5 workers and injuring 28. Most of the members of the Revolutionary Command Council insisted on the execution of two leaders of the riots, Nasser rejected this opinion and, nevertheless, carried out the sentence. "I met them and was convinced of their innocence and even admired their courage, but I ratified their death sentence under the pressure of the Interior Minister – Gamal Abdel Nasser – to prevent the recurrence of such events," Najib said in his memoirs. The Muslim Brotherhood supported the Revolutionary Command Council and, after Najib took power, demanded four ministerial portfolios in the new government. Nasser refused their demands and instead of giving them four ministerial portfolios, he gave two members of the group minor ministerial positions.
The Road to the Presidency,
In January 1953, Nasser managed to overcome the opposition led by Najib banned all political parties, and established a one-party system under the umbrella of the editorial board, the latter a loose movement whose main task was to organize rallies and lectures against the Revolutionary Command Council, and Nasser assumed the post of its secretary general. Despite the decision to dissolve parliament, Nasser was the only member of the Revolutionary Command Council who still favored holding parliamentary elections, according to Abdullatif al-Baghdadi (one of his fellow officers). Nasser continued to call for parliamentary elections to be held in 1956. In March 1953, Nasser led the Egyptian delegation to negotiate the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez Canal.
When signs of independence from the RCC began to appear from Naguib, as he distanced himself from the agrarian reform law and approached the opposition parties to the RCC such as: the Muslim Brotherhood and the Wafd Party, Nasser thought about stepping down. In June, Nasser took control of the post of interior minister by dismissing Minister Suleiman Hafez, loyal to Mohamed Najib, and pressured Najib to conclude the abolition of the monarchy.
On 25 February 1954, Najib announced his resignation from the RCC after the RCC held an official meeting without his presence two days earlier. On 26 February, Nasser accepted Najib's resignation and had Najib placed under house arrest at his home. The Revolutionary Command Council appointed Nasser as the leader of the Revolutionary Command Council and chairman of the Council of Ministers, provided that the post of President of the Republic remains vacant. As Najib wanted, then immediately mutinied among the army officers, demanding the reinstatement of Najib and the dissolution of the Revolutionary Command Council. But on February 27, Nasser's supporters in the army launched a raid on the military general command, putting an end to the rebellion. Later that day, hundreds of thousands of members of the Muslim Brotherhood held demonstrations, calling for the return of Najib and the imprisonment of Nasser. A large group within the Revolutionary Command Council, led by Khaled Mohieddin, also demanded the release of Najib and his return to the presidency of the Republic, and Nasser was forced to comply with their demands, but he postponed the return of Najib until March 4, and he appointed Abdul Hakim Amer as commander of the armed forces, and this position was in the hands of Mohammed Najib before his dismissal. On March 5, Nasser's security forces arrested thousands of participants in demonstrations calling for Najib's return. The Revolutionary Command Council succeeded in provoking the beneficiaries of the revolution, that is, the workers and peasants, and the petty bourgeoisie, as they organized large demonstrations, to oppose Najib's decisions, in which he canceled the agrarian reform law and several other reforms. Najib sought to suppress the demonstrations, but his requests were rejected by the heads of the security forces. On March 29, Nasser announced the cancellation of Najib's decisions "in response to the demand of the street". Between April and June, hundreds of Najib's supporters in the army were arrested and dismissed, and Muhyiddin was unofficially exiled to Switzerland (to represent the Revolutionary Command Council abroad). King Saud of Saudi Arabia tried to repair relations between Nasser and Najib but to no avail.
Presidency of the Revolutionary Command Council,
On October 26, 1954, Mahmoud Abdullatif a member of the Muslim Brotherhood tried to assassinate Nasser, when he was giving a speech in Alexandria to celebrate the British military withdrawal. The gunman was 25 feet (7.6 m) away from him and fired eight shots, but all the shots did not hit Nasser. A panic broke out among the audience, but Nasser raised his voice and asked the crowd to calm down, shouting the following:
May each stay in his place, men, may each stay in his place, men, my life is your redemption, my blood is your redemption, I will live for you, and die for your freedom and honor, if Gamal Abdel Nasser must die, each of you must be Gamal Abdel Nasser, Gamal Abdel Nasser is one of you and is ready to sacrifice his life for the country Gamal Abdel Nasser.
Shouts of encouragement came to Nasser in Egypt and the Arab world. The assassination attempt backfired. After returning to Cairo, Nasser ordered one of the largest political campaigns in the modern history of Egypt, thousands of opponents were arrested, most of them members of the Muslim Brotherhood and communists, and 140 officers loyal to Najib were dismissed. Eight Brotherhood leaders were sentenced to death. Mohamed Naguib was removed from the presidency of the Republic and put under house arrest, but he was not tried, and no one in the army defended him. And after neutralizing his rivals, Nasser became the undisputed leader in Egypt.
Nasser's supporters were still few, and it did not guarantee him the preservation of his reform plans, and his quest to stay in power. Nasser gave several speeches in different places in the country to promote himself and the editorial board. He imposed controls on the Press, and declared that all publications and newspapers must receive his approval to prevent "sedition". Umm Kulthum, Abdul Halim Hafez, and some prominent Arab singers of this era sang several songs praising Nasser's nationalism. She produced several plays denigrating his political opponents. According to some of his associates, Nasser orchestrated the campaign himself. Arab nationalism began to appear frequently in his speeches in the years 1954-1955. Then in January 1955, he was appointed chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. Nasser made secret contacts for peace with Israel in 1954-1955, but then he insisted that peace with Israel was impossible, considering it an "expansionist state that looks down on the Arabs". On February 28, 1955, Israeli troops attacked the Gaza Strip, which was controlled by Egypt at the time, and Israel declared that its goal was to eliminate the Palestinian guerrilla raids. Nasser felt that the Egyptian army was not ready for confrontation and did not respond militarily. His failure to respond to Israeli military action was a blow to his growing popularity. Later Nasser ordered to tighten the blockade of Israeli navigation through the Straits of Tiran. The Israelis re-militarized the Demilitarized Auja-hair area on the Egyptian border on September 21.
Coinciding with the February Israeli raid, the Baghdad Pact was formed between some of the UK's regional allies. Nasser viewed the Baghdad Pact as a threat to his efforts to eliminate British military influence in the Middle East, a mechanism to undermine the Arab League and"perpetuate Arab subordination to Zionism and Western imperialism". Nasser believed that if he wanted to maintain Egypt's regional leadership position, he needed to acquire modern weapons to arm his army. When it became clear to him that Western countries would not supply Egypt with weapons under acceptable financial and military conditions, Nasser turned to the Eastern Bloc and concluded an arms purchase agreement from Czechoslovakia in the amount of 320 million US dollars on September 27. After the Czechoslovak arms deal, the balance of power between Egypt and Israel became more even, and Nasser's role as an Arab leader challenging the West strengthened.
Declaration of neutrality
At the Bandung Conference in Indonesia in late April 1955, Nasser was treated as the most prominent representative of the Arab countries and was one of the most popular figures at the summit. Nasser had earlier visited Pakistan (April 9 (issue)), India (April 14), Burma, and Afghanistan on the way to Bandung. He established a friendship treaty with India in Cairo on April 6, which strengthened Egyptian-Indian relations in international politics and economic development fronts.
Nasser mediated the discussions of the conference between the pro-Western, pro-Soviet factions. Nasser expanded his efforts to counter colonialism in Africa and Asia and promote world peace during the Cold War between the West and the Soviet Union. Nasser supported the independence of Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco from French rule, supported the right of Palestinians to return to their homes, and called for the implementation of UN resolutions regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict. He successfully lobbied attendees to pass resolutions on each of these issues, and his most notable gain was securing strong support from China and India.
After the Bandung Conference, Nasser officially declared Egypt's "positive neutrality" regarding the Cold War. Nasser was greeted by large crowds of people who covered the streets of Cairo upon his return to Egypt on May 2, and his achievements and leadership at the conference were widely publicized in the press. As a result, Nasser's position was greatly strengthened and his self-confidence increased.
1956 (constitution and presidency)
With his internal position greatly strengthened, Nasser became able to ensure his primacy over his colleagues in the RCC, gaining relatively unchallenged decision-making power, especially in foreign policy.
In January 1956, the new Egyptian constitution was announced, which provided for the establishment of a one-party system under the umbrella of the National Union. Nasser of the National Union philosophizes: "The National Union is not a party, but an entire homeland within one framework . He is achieving the goals of his revolution, which must be achieved". The nationalist Union was itself the editorial board after its reconstitution after Nasser failed to mobilize significant popular participation in it. Nasser tried to involve more citizens in the new movement, provided that applications for membership were submitted to the competent Popular Committees, which were approved first, in order to consolidate popular support for his government. The National Union was choosing a candidate for the presidential elections to be approved by the masses after his name was put forward by the committees.
Nasser was nominated for the post of President of the Republic, and the new constitution was put to a referendum on June 23, both of which were overwhelmingly approved. The 350-member National Assembly was established. Elections were held in July 1957. The Constitution granted women suffrage, prohibited gender-based discrimination, and guaranteed special protection for women in the workplace. Coinciding with the new constitution and Nasser's presidency, the RCC dissolved itself as part of the transition to civilian rule. During the discussions to form a new government, Nasser began the process of marginalizing his rivals from among the original free officers, while elevating his closest allies to high-ranking positions in the government.
Nationalization of the Suez Canal
After a three-year transition period, Nasser took power. His independent foreign and domestic policies increasingly collided with the territorial interests of both the United Kingdom and France. The latter condemned his strong support for the independence of Algeria, and the government of Anthony Eden in the UK was outraged by Nasser's campaign against the Baghdad Pact. In addition, Nasser's adherence to neutrality on the Cold War, recognition of communist China, and the arms deal with the Eastern Bloc alarmed the United States. On July 19, 1956, the United States and Britain abruptly withdrew their offer to finance the construction of the Aswan Dam, as they expressed fear that the Egyptian economy would drown because of this project.
Nasser was informed of the British-American withdrawal while on a plane back to Cairo from Belgrade. Journalist Mohamed Hassanein Heikal confirms that Nasser made the final decision to nationalize the Suez Canal between July 19 and 20. But Nasser himself later stated that he decided on this on July 23, after studying the issue and talking with some of his advisers from the disbanded Revolutionary Command Council, namely Baghdadi and Mahmoud Younis. The rest of the members of the Revolutionary Command Council learned of the decision on July 24, while the bulk of the Cabinet was unaware of the nationalization plan until hours before Nasser announced it.
On July 26, 1956, Nasser gave a speech in Alexandria in which he announced the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company as a means of financing the Aswan Dam project in light of the withdrawal of British-American troops. In his speech, Nasser denounced British imperialism in Egypt and British control over the profits of the Canal Company, and upheld the right of the Egyptian people to sovereignty over the waterway, especially since 120,000 Egyptians died for its creation.
The announcement of the nationalization of the channel was widely supported by the public in Egypt, and throughout the Arab world, thousands took to the streets chanting in support of this decision. Egyptian political analyst Mahmoud Hamad wrote that after the nationalization of the channel, Nasser gained "almost complete" popularity, which established legitimacy and made him a" charismatic leader" and"a spokesman for the masses not only in Egypt but throughout the third world". According to Abu al-Rish, this was the greatest victory of Nasser's Arab nationalism at the time, and"soon after his paintings were to be found in the tents of Yemen, the souks of Marrakech, and the luxurious villas of Syria". The official justification for the nationalization of the canal was that the money generated from the canal would be used for the construction of the dam in Aswan. On the same day, Egypt closed the canal to Israeli navigation.
The Suez Canal crisis
France and the United Kingdom, the two largest shareholders of the Suez Canal Company, saw the nationalization of the Suez Canal as a hostile act by the Egyptian government. Nasser was aware that the nationalization of the canal would cause an international crisis, and he believed that the probability of military intervention by the two countries (France and the UK) was 80 percent. He said that he believed, however, that the UK would not be able to intervene militarily for at least two months after the announcement, and called Israeli intervention "impossible".
In early October, the UN Security Council met on the issue of nationalizing the canal and adopted a resolution recognizing Egypt's right to control the canal as long as it continues to allow the passage of foreign ships from the canal. According to Haeckel, after this agreement Nasser "estimated that the risk of invasion had been reduced to 10 percent". However, a short time later, the United Kingdom, France, and Israel made a secret agreement to seize the Suez Canal, occupy parts of Egypt, and overthrow Nasser.
On October 29, 1956, Israeli troops crossed the Sinai Peninsula, quickly advancing to their goals. Two days later, British and French aircraft bombed Egyptian airfields in the Canal Zone. Nasser ordered the military commanders to withdraw the Egyptian army from Sinai to strengthen the defenses of the canal. Moreover, Nasser was afraid to send the Armored Corps to confront the Israeli invading force (and the British and French who later landed on the city of Port Said), as he was afraid of its destruction by the forces of the three countries combined. Amer strongly disagreed with him, insisting that Egyptian tanks should face the Israelis in battle. The two had heated discussions on November 3, and Amer acknowledged Nasser's opinion.
Despite the order for the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from the Sinai, about 2,000 Egyptian soldiers were killed during clashes with Israeli troops, and almost 5,000 Egyptian soldiers were captured by the IDF. Amer and Salah Salem suggested asking for a ceasefire, and Salem also asked Nasser to surrender himself to the British forces. Nasser scolded them, and said that the army would not surrender. Nasser assumed military command. Despite the relative ease with which the Sinai was conquered, Nasser's prestige at home and among the Arabs was not harmed. To compensate for the poor performance of the Egyptian army, Nasser authorized the distribution of about 400,000 rifles to civilian volunteers and hundreds of militias formed throughout Egypt, which were led by a lot of political opponents of Gamal Abdel Nasser.
The Third Infantry Battalion and hundreds of National Guard elements were sent to Port Said to strengthen the Egyptian defenses there. Nasser and Baghdadi traveled to the Canal Zone to raise the morale of the armed volunteers. According to Baghdadi's memoirs, Nasser described the Egyptian army as "shattered". When the British and French troops landed in Port Said on November 5-6, the local militias increased their resistance and the strength of their defenses, and their fierce resistance led to street-to-street fighting. The commander of the Egyptian army in the city was preparing to ask for conditions for a ceasefire, but Nasser broke it off. British and French troops managed to capture most parts of the city on November 7. From 750 to 1000 Egyptians were killed in the Battle of Port Said.
The American Eisenhower administration condemned the triple invasion, and supported UN resolutions demanding the withdrawal of the troops of the three invading countries. Nasser praised Eisenhower, noting that he played the "biggest and most decisive roles" in stopping the "triple conspiracy". By the end of December, British and French troops had completely withdrawn from Egyptian territory, while Israel completed its withdrawal in March 1957 and released all Egyptian prisoners of war. As a result of the Suez Crisis, Nasser issued a set of regulations that imposed strict conditions for obtaining residency and citizenship, which mostly affected Jewish citizens (both Egyptian and foreign), thousands of whom were expelled or forced to leave the country.
On April 8, the canal was reopened, and the political position of Nasser was significantly strengthened due to the failure of the invasion and the attempt to overthrow him. Anthony Nutting says that it was this crisis that "finally and completely made Nasser the president of Egypt".
Pan-Arabism and socialism
Before 1957, Arab nationalism was the dominant ideology in the Arab world, and the Arab citizen Nasser was considered its undisputed leader. Historian Adid Duisha attributed this to Nasser's "charisma", which was strengthened by his victory in the Suez crisis, and his Cairo-based voice of the Arab radio, which spread Nasser's ideas throughout the Arabic-speaking world, historian Eugene Rogan wrote: Nasser conquered the Arab world by Radio
The Lebanese sympathetic to Nasser and the Egyptian embassy in Beirut bought a lot of Lebanese media to contribute to the further dissemination of Nasser's ideas globally. Nasser also enjoyed support from Arab nationalist organizations, throughout the region. It was well-funded by many of his followers but lacked any permanent structure or organization. They called themselves "Nasserists", although Nasser objected to the label, as he said that he preferred the term"Arab nationalists".
In January 1957, the United States adopted the Eisenhower Doctrine and pledged to prevent the spread of communism in the Middle East. Although Nasser was an opponent of communism in the region, his leadership of the Arabs was perceived as a threat by pro-Western countries in the region. Eisenhower tried to isolate Nasser and reduce his regional influence by trying to turn King Saud into his counterweight. Also in January, the elected Jordanian prime minister, a supporter of Nasser, Suleiman Al-Nabulsi, Jordan joined a military treaty with Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia.
Relations between Nasser and King Hussein deteriorated in April when Hussein accused Nasser of involvement in supporting two coup attempts against him, led by Ali Abu Nuwar and his associates although Nasser did not participate in them, and Hussein dissolved the Nabulsi government. Nasser later criticized Hussein on Cairo radio, calling him a "tool of imperialism". Nasser's relations with King Saud also became hostile, as the latter began to fear that the increase in Nasser's popularity in Saudi Arabia was becoming a real threat to the survival of the royal family. Despite the opposition of the governments of Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Lebanon to him, Nasser maintained his position among Egyptians and citizens of other Arab countries.
By the end of 1957, Nasser nationalized all the remaining British and French companies in Egypt, including tobacco, cement, pharmaceutical, and phosphate factories, while Nasser's efforts such as providing tax incentives and attracting foreign investments did not yield tangible results, Nasser nationalized more companies and made them part of the economic development organization. Two-thirds of the economy was still in private hands then. This effort has achieved some measure of success, with increased agricultural production and investment in manufacturing. Nasser initiated the construction of Helwan steel mills, which later became the largest enterprises in Egypt, providing tens of thousands of jobs. Nasser also decided to cooperate with the Soviet Union in the construction of the Aswan Dam as an alternative to the United States withdrawing its funding for the project.
United Arab Republic,
Despite his great popularity with the Arab people, by mid-1957 Nasser's only regional ally was Syria. In September of the same year, Turkish ground forces massed along the Syrian border, giving credence to rumors that the Baghdad Pact countries were trying to overthrow the leftist government in Syria. Nasser sent some units to Syria as a symbolic show of solidarity, which raised his status in the Arab world, especially among Syrians.
With the growing political instability in Syria, a delegation was sent from Syria to Nasser to demand immediate unity with Egypt. Nasser initially rejected the request, citing the incompatibility of the political and economic systems between the two countries, the lack of communication, the frequent interventions of the Syrian army in politics, and the deep sectarianism among the political forces in Syria. However, in January 1958, the second Syrian delegation managed to convince Nasser of the imminent takeover of Syria by the communists, and its subsequent slide into a civil war. Nasser later chose unity, although he stipulated that he would head the unity that would take place between the two states and the dissolution of the Baath Party, and the delegates and Syrian president Shukri al-Quwatli agreed to this. On February 1, the United Arab Republic was proclaimed, and the initial reaction in the Arab world was a stupor according to many historians, but soon the stupor turned into great euphoria. Nasser ordered a campaign against the Syrian communists, banishing many of them from their government jobs.
On February 24, Nasser flew to Damascus on a surprise visit to celebrate unity. He was greeted by hundreds of thousands of people. He sent the Crown Prince of Imam Badr in northern Yemen to Damascus to offer him to annex his country to the New Republic. Nasser agreed to the creation of a federal union with Yemen to be called the "United Arab States".
Nasser announced the issuance of the new interim constitution prepared by the 600-member National Assembly (400 from Egypt and 200 from Syria), and the dissolution of all political parties. Nasser gave both sides of the unit two vice presidents: al-Baghdadi and Amer in Egypt, and Sabri Al-Asli and Akram al-Hourani in Syria. Then he left for Moscow to meet with Nikita Khrushchev. At the meeting, Khrushchev pressed Nasser to lift the ban on the Communist Party, but Nasser refused, stating that it was an internal matter and not a topic for discussion with external powers. Khrushchev was reportedly surprised and denied interfering in the affairs of the United Arab Republic. The issue was resolved, as both leaders sought to prevent discord between the two countries.
Impact on the Arab world
In Lebanon, there were clashes between pro-and anti-Nasser factions, including President Camille Chamoun. The clashes culminated during the crisis of 1958 in May. The leftist factions supporting Nasser demanded to join the United Arab Republic, while the right-wing factions opposed to him wanted the continuation of Lebanon's independence. Nasser delegated Abdul Hamid al-Sarraj to oversee this issue, and al-Sarraj provided limited assistance to Nasser's Lebanese supporters in the form of money, light weapons, and Officer Training, and this was less than the "widespread support" that Shimon claimed. Nasser did not covet Lebanon, seeing it as a "special case", but sought to prevent Shimon from getting a second presidential term.
On July 14, Iraqi army officers Abdul Karim Qasim and Abdul Salam Arif overthrew the Iraqi monarchy, and the next day, the Iraqi Prime Minister opposed to Nasser, Nuri al-Said, was killed. Nasser recognized the new government and said that"any attack on Iraq is an attack on the United Arab Republic". On July 15, US Marines landed in Lebanon, and British special forces landed in Jordan, at the request of the governments of both countries to prevent them from falling into the hands of forces loyal to Nasser. Nasser saw that the revolution in Iraq opened the way for Arab On July 14, Iraqi army officers Abdul Karim Qasim and Abdul Salam Arif overthrew the Iraqi monarchy, and the next day, the Iraqi Prime Minister opposed Nasser, Nuri al-Said, was killed. Nasser recognized the new government and said that"any attack on Iraq is an attack on the United Arab Republic". On July 15, US Marines landed in Lebanon, and British special forces landed in Jordan, at the request of the governments of both countries to prevent them from falling into the hands of forces loyal to Nasser. Nasser saw that the revolution in Iraq opened the way for Arab unity. And on July 19, for the first time and on July 19, for the first time, he announced that he had chosen a "full Arab Union", although he had no plan to merge Iraq with the United Arab Republic, while most members of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council preferred Iraqi national unity. Qasim sought to preserve the independence of Iraq, as he was dissatisfied with the large popular base of Nasser in the country, and this is what he called Cairo to be a headquarters for Arab political refugees during that period, he had a meeting with Saddam Hussein as an opponent of the Qasimi regime, where he gave him some advice in nationalist political work.
In the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite comIn the fall of 1958, Nasser formed a tripartite committee consisting of Zakaria Mohieddin, Hourani, and Salah al-Bitar to oversee developments in Syria. By transferring the last two (who were Ba'athists) to Cairo, Nasser alienated the most important political figures who possessed independent ideas about the way Syria should be run. Al-Sarraj turned Syria into a police state by imprisoning and exiling landowners who objected to the introduction of the Egyptian agrarian reform to Syria, as he did with the communists. Following the Lebanese elections won by Fouad Chehab in September go away."
The collapse of unity with Syria
Nasser practiced an improvisational and unique policy in managing the affairs of Syria. The Egyptian elements were conducting the affairs of Syria, especially through the Office of Field Marshal Amer. Quantities of modern Soviet weapons were transferred from Syria to Egypt under the pretext of the unity of the front and the need for them in Egypt, and there were plans to transfer the gold reserves from the Central Bank of Syria to Cairo. Opposition to unity has increased among some key Syrian elements, such as social, economic, political and military elites. Hassan Tohami mentions in his memoirs that before the unification, agriculture in Syria was profitable and surplus Syrian wheat was exported abroad, as well as the industry was flourishing, but Nasser issued a decree in July 1961 containing socialist measures to nationalize large sectors of the Syrian economy, which caused an economic crisis. Nasser attributed the deterioration of the Syrian economy to the complete control of the bourgeoisie over it. Nasser rejected the advice of his close associates on the need to carry out reforms in Syria that take into account the opinions and concerns of Syrians and ignored warnings about the dangers of the collapse of unity, some of which were from Salah al-Din al-Bitar, who said during his visit to Cairo:
"Nasser's rule in Syria is setting as the sun is setting."
Nasser denied the minister of the interior of the Northern Territory (Syria) Abdul Hamid al-Sarraj in September to reduce the growing political crisis. Abu al-Rish reports that Nasser was completely unable to address the Syrian problems because they were "foreign to him". The economic situation in Egypt was more positive, with GDP growing to 4.5 percent and the rapid progress of industry. In 1960, Nasser nationalized the Egyptian Press, in order to direct coverage towards social and economic issues in the country and to mobilize popular support for his socialist measures. In addition, the absolute control of the Egyptian elements, Nasser's harsh treatment of his communist and Baathist opponents, and the policy of torture were other reasons for people's grumbling and growing opposition to unity.
On September 28, 1961, separatist units of the army led by the director of the Office of Field Marshal Amer Abdul Karim Al-nahlawi launched a coup in Damascus, announcing the secession of Syria from the United Arab Republic, and in response, pro-union army units clashed with them in northern Syria, and pro-Nasser demonstrations took place in major Syrian cities. Nasser sent Egyptian special forces to Latakia to support his allies, but withdrew from them two days later, citing his desire that there would be no fighting between Arab countries. Nasser accepted the separation of Syria from the United Arab Republic on October 5, announced that Egypt would recognize the elected Syrian government, and blamed the disintegration of unity on interference by Arab governments hostile to him. According to Heckel, Nasser suffered something like a nervous breakdown and his health began to deteriorate after the dissolution of the Union, and he also began to smoke more.
Renaissance at the regional level,
Nasser's regional position changed unexpectedly when Yemeni officers led by Abdullah Al-Sallal - a supporter of Nasser-overthrew Imam Badr in northern Yemen on September 27, 1962. Al-Badr and his tribal supporters began to receive more support from Saudi Arabia to help them restore the kingdom, while Nasser later - at the request of Al-Sallal- accepted the help of the new government militarily on September 30. As a result, Egypt became increasingly involved in the protracted civil war in Yemen until it withdrew its troops in 1967. Most of Nasser's old colleagues questioned the wisdom of continuing the war, but Amer reassured Nasser of the proximity of their victory. Nasser later said - in 1968-that the intervention in Yemen was a "miscalculation".
In July 1962, Algeria became independent from France. As a strong political and financial supporter of the Algerian independence movement, Nasser regarded the country's independence as his victory. Amid these developments, the pro-Nasser League of the Saudi royal family led by Prince Talal took refuge in Egypt, along with the Jordanian chief of staff, in early 1963.
On February 8, 1963, a military coup in Iraq led by a Baathist-Nasserist coalition overthrew Qasim (who was later killed). Abdus Salam Aref-Nasiri - was chosen to be the new president. A similar coalition overthrew the Syrian government on March 8th. On March 14, the new Iraqi and Syrian governments sent delegations to Nasser to pressure him to work for a new Arab Union. During the meeting, Nasser criticized the Baathists for" facilitating "the exit of Syria from the UAR, and emphasized that he was the"leader of the Arabs". It was agreed on the work of a transitional unit providing for a federal system, the parties signed the agreement on April 17, and the new union was to be established in May 1965. But the agreement was later discarded when the Baathists in Syria abandoned Nasser's supporters from the officers. A counter-coup by a Nasserist colonel, whom Nasser called the Baathists "fascists", subsequently failed.
In January 1964, Nasser called for an Arab League summit in Cairo, to make a unified Arab response against Israel's plans to use the waters of the Jordan River for economic purposes, which Syria and Jordan considered an act of war. Nasser blamed Arab divisions, describing the situation as "catastrophic". Nasser encouraged Syria and the Palestinian fedayeen against the provocations of the Israelis and declared that he was not planning a war with Israel. During the summit, Nasser began friendly relations with King Hussein and repaired relations with the rulers of Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Morocco. In May, Nasser began to officially participate in his leadership role in the Palestinian cause, before embarking on the creation of the PLO. Nasser used it to control the Palestinian fedayeen. Its chairman (and Nasser's candidate) was Ahmed Al-Shaqiri.
After years of coordination in foreign policy and the development of relations, Nasser, Indonesian President Sukarno, Yugoslav President Tito, and Indian President Nehru founded the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) in 1961. Its stated goal was to consolidate non-alignment and strengthen world peace under the Cold War, eliminate colonialism, and increase economic cooperation among developing countries. In 1964, Nasser became the chairman of the Non-Aligned Movement and the organization's second conference was held in Cairo.
During this period, Nasser made Egypt a refuge for anti-colonial leaders and allowed many African countries to broadcast anti-colonial propaganda from Cairo. Beginning in 1958, Nasser played a key role in the discussions among African leaders that led to the creation of the organization of African Unity in 1963.
Modernization efforts and internal opposition,
Al Azhar
In 1961, Nasser sought to consolidate Egypt's position as the leader of the Arab world and sought to promote a second revolution in Egypt to merge Islamic and socialist thought. To achieve this, he initiated many reforms to modernize Al-Azhar, which serves as the leading authority in Sunni Islam. Nasser used the more prepared scholars of Al-Azhar as a counterweight to the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood, starting in 1953.
Nasser gave instructions to Al-Azhar to make changes to his curriculum, which had been greatly degraded. The instruction included the creation of mixed schools and the introduction of evolution into the school curriculum. The reforms also included the merger of the religious and civil courts. Moreover, Nasser forced Al-Azhar to issue a fatwa accepting Shia, Alawite, and Druze Muslims into the mainstream of Islam, whom Al-Azhar considered "heretics" for several centuries earlier.
Rivalry with Amer
After the secession of Syria, Nasser's fears grew from Amer's lack of interest in training and modernizing the army, and from the state within the state that Amer created by creating the military command and intelligence apparatus. In late 1961, Nasser issued a decree giving the president the authority to approve all senior military appointments, rather than leaving this responsibility solely to Amer. Moreover, Nasser instructed that the main criterion for promotion should be merit, not personal loyalty. Nasser backed down from this initiative after Amer's allies among the officers threatened to mobilize against him.
In early 1962 Nasser again tried to wrest control of the military command from Amer. Amer responded by having a confrontation with Nasser for the first time and secretly rallied the officers loyal to him. Nasser eventually backed down, as he was worried about a possible violent confrontation between the military and the civilian government. According to Baghdadi, due to the tension caused by the collapse of the United Arab Republic and the growing autonomy of Amer, Nasser (who was already a diabetic), has been practically living on painkillers ever since.
The national charter and the second term
In October 1961, Nasser began a major Nationalization Program in Egypt, believing that the adoption of his socialist decisions would be the solution to his country's problems. To organize and consolidate his popular base with the citizens of Egypt and counter the influence of the army, Nasser introduced the national charter in 1962 and drafted a new constitution. The charter called for universal care and health, affordable housing, vocational schools, more rights for women, and a family planning program, as well as the expansion of the Suez Canal.
Nasser also tried to maintain control over the country's civil service to prevent it from inflating, causing it to become a burden on the state. Nasser issued new laws that set the minimum wage for workers, set a percentage of profit shares for them, free education and free health care, reduced the number of working hours, and encouraged participation in management. The agrarian reform law ensured the security of tenant farmers, agricultural growth was promoted, and rural poverty was reduced. As a result of the measures of 1962, the government's ownership of Egyptian companies reached 51 percent, and the National Union was renamed the Arab Socialist Union. With these measures, local repression increased, and thousands of Islamists, including dozens of army officers, were also imprisoned. Nasser's tendency to turn the regime into the Soviet-style called on his aides Baghdadi and Hussein Al-Shafi'i to submit their resignations in protest.
Nasser was re-elected for a second term as president of the United Arab Republic after a referendum in the country, and Nasser was sworn in on March 25, 1965. Nasser was the only candidate for this post since the law prohibited the candidacy of almost all of his political opponents for the presidency. That same year, the intellectual leader of the Muslim Brotherhood, Sayyid Qutb, was imprisoned. Qutb was accused of planning the assassination of Nasser and was executed in 1966. Starting in 1966, as Egypt's economy slowed and government debt became increasingly burdensome, Nasser began to loosen state control over the private sector and provide incentives to increase exports.
The 1967 war,
In early 1967, the Soviet Union warned Nasser of an imminent Israeli attack on Syria, although Chief of Staff Mohammed Fawzi called that warning "unfounded". Without Nasser's permission, Amer used the warnings as an excuse to send troops to Sinai on May 14, and Nasser later demanded the withdrawal of the international emergency forces in North Sinai. Earlier that day, Nasser had received a warning from King Hussein of Israeli-American collusion to drag Egypt into war. Although in previous months, Hussein and Nasser had accused each other of avoiding a battle with Israel, Hussein was nevertheless afraid that a possible Egyptian-Israeli war would cause the occupation of the West Bank by Israel. Nasser still believed that the United States could restrain Israel from attacking Egypt because of the assurances he received from the United States and the Soviet Union. In return, Nasser also reassured both powers that Egypt would only defend itself.
On May 21, without Nasser's permission, Amer ordered the blockade of the Straits of Tiran, a move that Nasser believed Israel would consider a reason for the war. Amer reassured him that the army was ready for a confrontation, but Nasser doubted it. Moreover, Amer predicted an imminent Israeli attack and called for a preemptive strike. Nasser refused the invitation, as he said that the Air Force lacked competent pilots. However, Nasser said that if Israel attacked, Egypt would have the advantage of having more manpower and weapons, enabling it to fend off Israeli forces for at least two weeks, allowing diplomatic efforts for a ceasefire to begin. There was growing pressure for military action by all the Arab masses and the various Arab governments. On May 26, Nasser announced that "our main goal will be the destruction of Israel," and on May 30, King Hussein of Jordan joined in an alliance with Egypt and Syria.
On the morning of June 5, the Israeli Air Force struck Egyptian air bases, destroying a significant part of the Egyptian Air Force. Before the end of the first day of the war, Israeli armored units had broken through the Egyptian defense lines and captured the city of El Arish. The next day, Amer ordered the immediate withdrawal of Egyptian troops from the Sinai, which caused the majority of Egyptian casualties during the war. According to Sadat, Nasser learned about the seriousness of the current situation only when the Israelis captured Sharm el-Sheikh. Nasser hurried to the army headquarters to inquire about the military situation. The officers present stated that Nasser and Amer had exploded in a "non-stop shouting match". The Supreme executive committee, formed by Nasser to oversee the war situation, attributed the repeated Egyptian defeats to the rivalry between Nasser and Amer and the total impotence of Amer.
Resignation and aftermath,
Israel easily captured the Sinai and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria, and yet the Arabs believed the Arab radio station's claims that an Arab victory was imminent. On June 9, Nasser announced on television to the citizens of Egypt the defeat of their country. He announced his resignation on television later that day and ceded presidential powers to his then-deputy Zakaria Mohieddin, who had no prior information about the decision and had declined the position. Hundreds of thousands of Nasser sympathizers poured into the streets in mass demonstrations across Egypt and throughout the Arab world to reject his resignation, chanting: "We are your soldiers, Gamal!». Nasser reversed his decision the next day.
On July 11, Nasser Mohammed Fawzi was appointed as commander-in-chief of the armed forces replacing Amer. Protests occurred from Aamir loyalists in the army, 600 of whom marched to the army headquarters, demanding the reinstatement of Aamir. Nasser's response was to dismiss thirty of Aamer's loyalists in the army. Amer and his allies devised a plan to overthrow him on 27 August, but Amer committed suicide on 14 September. Despite his strained relationship with Amer, Nasser spoke of losing "the person closest to him". After that, Nasser began the process of depoliticizing the armed forces, arresting dozens of the most prominent military and intelligence figures loyal to Amer.
At the Arab League summit in Khartoum on August 29 of the same year, Nasser's usual leadership role receded, as Saudi King Faisal led the attending heads of State. A ceasefire in the Yemen war was declared and the summit concluded with Khartoum's decision. The Soviet Union supplied Egypt militarily and severed diplomatic relations with Israel. Nasser severed relations with the United States after the war, according to Abu al-Rish, Nasser's policy ended with "playing superpowers against superpowers". In November, Nasser accepted Security Council Resolution 242, which called for Israel's withdrawal from the territories gained in the war. Nasser's supporters claimed that his move was to buy time to prepare for another confrontation with Israel, while his critics believe that his acceptance of the decision indicates his declining interest in Palestinian independence.
His last years in the presidency,
Local reforms and government changes
Nasser appointed himself prime minister and supreme commander of the armed forces on 19 June 1967 as two additional posts. Nasser was outraged by the court-martial's lenient consideration of Air Force officers accused of negligence during the 1967 war. Workers and students launched protests demanding major political reforms in late February, the biggest challenge to Nasser since the workers ' protests of March 1954. Nasser responded to the demonstrations by appointing eight civilians instead of several members of the Arab Socialist Union to the government. On 3 March, Nasser directed the Egyptian intelligence service to focus on foreign affairs rather than domestic espionage, and announced the "fall of the Intelligence state".
On March 30, Nasser announced a statement providing for the restoration of civil liberties and increasing the independence of Parliament from the executive branch, the statement included some other major structural changes, as a campaign was launched to rid the government of corrupt elements. A popular referendum approved the proposed measures later in May. Some observers noted that the announcement signifies an important shift from political repression to trade liberalization, although they believe that most of the promises will remain a dead letter.
Nasser Sadat and Hussein appointed Shafei to the post of vice president in December 1969. By that time, Nasser's relations with his other military comrades, Khalid and Zakaria Mohieddin and former vice-president Sabri, were strained. By the mid-1970s, Nasser considered replacing Sadat with Baghdadi after reconciling with the latter.
War of attrition and regional diplomatic initiatives,
In January 1968, Nasser began the war of attrition to regain the territories occupied by Israel, ordered attacks against Israeli positions east of the Suez Canal, and then blockaded the canal. In March, Nasser offered to help Fatah with weapons and money after their performance against Israeli forces in the Battle of Dignity that month. He also advised Arafat to think about peace with Israel and the establishment of a Palestinian state that would include the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Nasser has since effectively ceded his leadership of the Palestinian cause to Arafat.
Israel responded to the Egyptian bombardment with commando raids, by artillery shelling and airstrikes. This led to an exodus of civilians from Egyptian cities along the West Bank of the Suez Canal. Nasser stopped all military activities and began a program to build a network of internal defenses, while receiving financial support from various Arab countries. The war resumed in March 1969. In November, under Nasser's mediation, an agreement was concluded between the PLO and the Lebanese army, which granted Palestinian militants the right to use Lebanese territory to attack Israel.
In June 1970, Nasser accepted the US-sponsored Rogers initiative, which called for an end to military actions and Israeli withdrawal from Egyptian territory, but this was rejected by Israel, the PLO, and most Arab countries except Jordan. Nasser was initially dismissive of the plan, but accepted under pressure from the Soviet Union, which feared that he might be dragged into a war with the United States as a result of the escalation of the regional conflict. Nasser thwarted any move towards direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser assumed that any direct peace talks with Israel are tantamount to surrender. After Nasser accepted Rogers ' initiative, Israel agreed to a cease-fire, and Nasser calmed down in the fighting to transfer surface-to-air missiles toward the Canal Zone.
At the same time, tensions between the PLO and the government in Jordan began to increase, and a military campaign was launched to eliminate the PLO forces. Fears of a regional war prompted Nasser to convene an emergency Arab summit on September 27, to call for a ceasefire.
His death and funeral
After the summit ended on September 28, 1970, Nasser suffered a heart attack. He was immediately taken to his home, where he was examined by doctors. Nasser died several hours later, around six o'clock in the evening. Heikal, Sadat, and Nasser's wife were saluted on his deathbed. According to his doctor, Al-Sawy Habibi, the likely cause of Nasser's death was atherosclerosis, varicose veins, and complications from long-standing diabetes. Nasser smoked a lot, in addition to his family's history of heart disease, which caused the death of two of his brothers in their fifties from the same condition. Despite all this, Nasser's health condition was not known to the public before his death.
After the announcement of Nasser's death, a state of shock prevailed in Egypt and the Arab world. Nasser's funeral in Cairo on October 1 was attended by five to seven million mourners. All the heads of Arab states attended, except Saudi King Faisal. King Hussein and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat wept openly, and Muammar Gaddafi fainted from emotional turmoil twice. A few non-Arab dignitaries attended, including Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin and French prime minister Jacques Chaban-Delmas.
After the procession began to move, the mourners began to chant: "There is no God but God, Nasser is the beloved of God . We are all supporters". The police unsuccessfully tried to calm the crowds, and as a result, most of the foreign dignitaries were evacuated. The final destination of the procession was the Al-Nasr mosque, which was later renamed the Abdul-Nasser mosque, where the latter was buried.
Because of his ability to stimulate nationalist sentiments, "men and women, children, cried and screamed in the streets" after hearing of his death, according to Notting. The general Arab reaction was one of mourning, and thousands of people poured into the streets of major cities across the Arab world. Saeed Al-Sheba, an official of the Palestinian Popular organization, organized an armed March of Palestinian fedayeen in Tripoli, Lebanon, a huge march was launched in Beirut in which more than a dozen people were killed as a result of the chaos, and in Jerusalem, nearly 75,000 Arabs marched through the Old City chanting "Nasser will never die". Sherif Hatata, a former political prisoner and a member of Arizona State University during the reign of Gamal Abdel Nasser, said that: the greatest achievement of Abdel Nasser was his funeral. The world will never again see five million people cry together
Death or poisoning,
Many accounts talked about the poisoning of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, but the most controversial was the statement of the Palestinian leader Atef Abu Bakr, a dissident from the organization Fatah Revolutionary Council, Sabri Al-Banna group when he told Al Arabiya channel on the political memory program with journalist Taher Baraka that President Abdel Nasser was poisoned during his visit to Khartoum on January 2, 1970 to open the Palestinian Revolution exhibition and that Sabri Al-Banna and Jaafar Nimeiri were behind the poisoning of President Gamal Abdel Nasser. The program featured a photograph of a group of Mossad officers, headed by Mike Harari, posing as journalists, at the 1967 Three Brigades Summit in Khartoum.
His legacy
Nasser made Egypt completely independent of British influence, and the country became a superpower of the developing world under his leadership. One of his main domestic efforts was the establishment of social justice, which is considered a prerequisite for the achievement of liberal democracy. During his presidency, ordinary citizens enjoyed unprecedented benefits in housing, education, employment, health, and nutrition services, as well as many forms of social welfare, while the influence of feudalism declined. By the end of his presidency, working conditions and workers had improved significantly. Despite this, poverty remained high in the country and significant resources that were intended for social welfare were diverted to the military.
The national economy grew significantly through agrarian reform, major modernization projects such as the Helwan Steel and Aswan Dam, and the nationalization of the Suez Canal. However, the economic growth observed in the early sixties began to shrink for the remainder of the decade, recovering only in 1970. Egypt experienced a" golden age " of culture during Nasser's presidency, according to historian Joel Gordon, especially in film, television, theater, radio, literature, fine arts, comedy, poetry, and music. Egypt dominated the Arab world in these areas during the reign of Nasser, producing many cultural symbols and figures.
During Mubarak's presidency, Nasserist political parties began to appear in Egypt, the first of which was the Nasserist Arab Democratic Party. Divisions among its members beginning in 1995 led to the gradual establishment of splinter parties, including Hamdeen Sabahi's founding of the Dignity Party in 1997. Sabahi came in third place during the 2012 presidential election. In addition, among the founders of the Kefaya movement were some Nazarene activists.
Public image
Nasser was known for his intimate relationship with ordinary Egyptians, although attempts on his life were unparalleled among his successors. Nasser was a skilled orator, delivering 1,359 speeches between 1953 and 1970, a record for any Egyptian President. Historian Elie Boudh wrote that one of the constants of Nasser's personality was "his ability to represent Egyptian authenticity, in victory or defeat". The National Press also contributed to the strengthening of his popularity, especially after the nationalization of the official media.
Despite the many criticisms leveled at Nasser by Egyptian intellectuals in the aftermath of the Six-Day War and until he died in 1970, the general public was increasingly sympathetic to him, both during his lifetime and after his death, according to Boudh.
To this day, Nasser is considered a prominent figure throughout the Arab world, a symbol of Arab unity and dignity, and an important figure in the history of the modern Middle East. He is also considered a champion of social justice in Egypt. Time magazine says that despite his mistakes and shortcomings, Nasser brought a sense of personal worth and national dignity, which Egyptians and Arabs did not know 400 years ago.
During the Arab Spring, images of Gamal Abdel Nasser appeared in Cairo and Arab capitals during anti-government demonstrations. According to Ms Andoni, Nasser became a" symbol of Arab dignity " during the mass demonstrations.
Criticism
Nasser was at odds with many sides, Arab and Western. His first disagreement was with the Muslim Brotherhood and with President Mohamed Naguib. President Najib mentions in his memoirs that Nasser indulged in signing the evacuation agreement with the British and gave them military and economic privileges in exchange for British and American support in his struggle against Najib. Hassan Tohami repeated accusations to Nasser of allowing American intelligence to interfere in Egypt's affairs through Miles Copeland, with whom he maintained personal relations.
Sadat announced his intention to" continue the path of Nasser " in his inauguration speech as president of the Republic on October 7, 1970, but began to deviate from Nasser's policies, especially after the October 1973 war. Sadat opened the Egyptian economy to private investment. According to Haeckel, this led to Egypt being "in a half-war with Nasser, and a half-war with Sadat".
Failure to establish Arab unity
Many politicians repeated accusations to Nasser that he caused the failure of the projects of Arab unity and did not take advantage of the opportunity to establish unity. Nationalists came to power in six Arab countries-Syria, Iraq, Algeria, North Yemen, Libya, and Egypt, in addition to the existence of governments or regimes with Arab nationalist tendencies (such as Sudan, Jordan, and Lebanon), however, all attempts at unity between these countries failed. Hassan Tohami says in his memoirs that Nasser failed the project of quadripartite unity between Egypt, Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia in 1954 because he interfered in the affairs of Jordan and attempt to dictate his policy to its government. His impromptu decisions had a significant impact on the Syrians ' tendency to secede from the United Arab Republic.
Human rights
Nasser's critics among Egyptians consider him a dictator, who thwarted democratic progress, caused the imprisonment of thousands of opponents, and led the repressive administration responsible for numerous human rights violations. Islamists in Egypt, especially members of the Brotherhood, accuse Nasser's political regime of repression, calling it"tyrannical and diabolical". The liberal writer Tawfiq al-Hakim described Nasser as a" sultan of confusion " who mastered the art of oratory but had no actual plan to achieve his stated goals. The torture that Nasser introduced into Syria (from which the bodies of dissidents were dissolved in acid - to hide their Traces) was one of the main reasons that prompted Syria to secede from the United Arab Republic.
Some liberal and Islamist critics in Egypt criticized Nasser, including the founding members of the New Wafd Party. Egyptian politician Aladdin Desouki says that the biggest shortcomings of the 1952 revolution are Nasser's concentration of power, the lack of democracy in Egypt under his reign, and his government's restrictions on freedom of expression and political participation.
American political science professor Mark Cooper considers that Nasser's legacy was "instability", given Nasser's reliance on personal power and the lack of strong political institutions under his rule. Historian Abdul Azim Ramadan wrote that Nasser was an irrational and irresponsible leader, blaming his tendency to unilateralism in the decision for the defeat of Egypt in the 1967 war.
Suppression and restriction of the press
Nasser suppressed the press and made it a mouthpiece for his policies and dismissed and imprisoned journalists who criticized him or disagreed with his policies, even those close to Nasser, such as Mustafa Amin (Founder of Akhbar Al-Youm newspaper), Fikri Abaza (editor-in-chief of the photographer and chairman of the board of Directors of Dar Al-Hilal) and Ahmed Abu al-Fath (founder of Al-Masry newspaper). In 1954, the minister of guidance issued a decision to cancel the licenses of 42 newspapers and various magazines.
Centers of power around Nasser,
Among the internal criticisms that were directed at Nasser was the release of the hand of Field Marshal Abdel Hakim Amer, whom many accuse of irresponsibility and arrogance. In this context, Amer accused that he was responsible for the defeat of June 1967, for the failure of unity with Syria, and the failure of Unity projects with Iraq and Yemen, along with Anwar Sadat, because of the actions of the army in Syria and Yemen, which were considered as the actions of invading and occupying forces of a violent nature.
Relationship with the Copts
Historian Mordechai Nisan considers that the Copts were strongly influenced by Nasser's nationalization policies, because many Copts were among the wealthiest Egyptians, although they accounted for about 10-20% of the population. In addition, according to Nissan, Nasser's Arab policies undermined the strong sense of Copts about their Egyptian Coptic identity, which resulted in the postponement of permits for the construction of churches and the closure of Christian religious courts. Historian Mardukhai Nisan believes that the policy of persecution by Nasser led to the closure of the Copts and the search for ways to strengthen the bonds of religious faith at home. According to the researcher Molefi Kiti Asanta, during the reign of President Gamal Abdel Nasser, there was no great sympathy for the Copts, and he did not put Copts in high and key positions during his administration, as according to the researcher, Nasser did not see Copts as collaborators. According to the researcher, as a way to "survive harassment, discrimination, and terrible persecution," Copts preserved their religion and went to work in professions such as engineering, law, medicine, and education.
Regional leadership,
Gaddafi and Al-Nimeiri were influenced by Nasser's Arab nationalist ideas and Gaddafi tried to succeed Nasser as the leader of the Arabs.
Through his actions and speeches, Nasser was able to embody the Arab Popular Will, and many nationalist revolutions in the Arab world were inspired by Nasser's ideas. Nasser's achievements were unprecedented for other Arab leaders. The extent of Nasser's centrality in the region made it one of the priorities of the Arab nationalist presidents to establish good relations with Egypt, to gain popularity among the citizens of their country.
Nasser's system of state control was an example for almost all Arab countries, including Algeria, Syria, Iraq, Tunisia, Yemen, Sudan, and Libya. Ahmed Ben Bella, the first president of Algeria, was a Nasserist. Abdullah Al-Sallal (one of Nasser's allies) became the king of North Yemen. Other Nasser-influenced coups occurred, such as those in Iraq in July 1958 and Syria in 1963. Muammar Gaddafi, who overthrew the Libyan monarchy in 1969, considered Nasser his hero and sought to succeed him in the "leadership of the Arabs". Also in 1969, Colonel Jaafar al-Nimeiri, a supporter of Nasser, seized power in Sudan. Nasser's nationalist ideas spread throughout the Arab world, especially among the Palestinians, in South Yemen, the Persian Gulf, and Iraq.
