Naqada period in ancient Egypt
A culture of criticism
The Naqada culture is an archaeological culture of pre-Chalcolithic Egypt (c.4000-3000 BC), named after the city of Naqada, Qena governorate. However, a 2013 Oxford University radiocarbon dating study of the Predynastic ERA suggests a very late date beginning sometime between 3800 and 3700 BC.
The Naqada culture (3800-3150 BC) developed over a period of 650 years during the Egyptian Predynastic era. At the archaeological site of Naqada, the Chalcolithic period revealed a culture that spanned approximately 650 years, but this culture also extended to other sites in the region at that time. It was preceded, in the north of Middle Egypt, by the Tassa and Badari monastery cultures (about 5000 - about 4000). Naqada culture is divided into three periods: Naqada I (3900-3500), Naqada II (3500-3300), and Naqada III (3300-3150). All of them belonged to - before the first family. The last stage, Naqada III, is also called the "primitive period": it is the most recent period of Egyptian prehistory, which saw the appearance of the first" Kings", probably simple thenite Chiefs, which Egyptologists call the zero Egyptian dynasty. Hence, the Naqada culture is traced by the first Egyptian dynasty (3150-2850), which opened the thenis era (the capital of thenis) in ancient Egypt.
The last stage of the Naqada culture is Naqada III, which is identical with the early Bronze Age (Early Bronze Age, about 3200-3000 BC) in ancient Egypt.
Naqada culture is partially contemporaneous with other Neolithic cultures, Fayum and Delta cultures (5400-3400 and 5000-4400)-in the Fayum Oasis, the first agricultural communities, with granaries, burial around 5200, breeding and hunting.
Ancestors
The Nile Valley itself meets very little of the human presence experienced between 11,000 and 5,000, at this time of the green desert, if not some traces of the temporary presence of the Paleolithic. Their fine stone industry, which corresponds very well to that of the first Neolithic in the Western Sahara (8500-6100), therefore indicates the displacement of technologies and men. But in this first Neolithic, one can only provide evidence of reproduction and pottery. Moreover, between the years 8500 and 5500, thanks to the rise of the African summer monsoons towards the North, a vegetation cover of the coastal type arose on these fringes of the Nile. As for the influence of these favorable climatic conditions, between 7000 and 5000, but towards the south, on the banks of the Sudanese Nile, from Upper Nubia to Khartoum, they favor the development of Mesolithic communities. However, local beef bones dating back to the early Neolithic (7200-6500) have been discovered in central Sudan.
100 km west of the Nile Valley, in the eastern desert of Lower Nubia, about 7000, the desert area is now the playa - Pir Ksiba plant, where there used to be permanent lakes, showing the domestication of cattle and the exploitation of sorghum. There we find, but about 5400, the first animal graves, in earthen burials. Similarly, a large rock complex characterizes this site.
The Fayum culture (5400-3400) and the Delta (Marmara culture 4800-4300), whose storages proved the existence of Agriculture since 5200, inherited the knowledge of the plant growers of Playa. The presence of domestic bulls and certain characteristics of stone tools show that these inhabitants share common features with those found in the desert.
In addition, since the beginning of the seventh millennium and in an area stretching from Assiut to the center of present-day Sudan, shepherds lived with herds of cattle, who managed to achieve the first stage of settlement. They live in a very favorable environment, consisting of savannas filled with lakes and complementary resources. They also take advantage of the (then enormous) fringes of the Nile Valley and the river basins (wadis) that abound.
In the sixth millennium BC, a population of shepherds occupied what is today the eastern desert, from the east of the Nile to the mountain range overlooking the Red Sea. Then they live on their sheep and goats, fishing on the Nile.
At the beginning of the VI Millennium, rains became less frequent. Hunting, fishing, and gathering are limited. It is then that reproduction becomes the main activity. The Bedouin, following the first stage of settlement in the seventh millennium, reorganizes itself from southern Egypt to Nubia. These new nomads are located around the sites that are scattered today in the desert.
Due to the gradual drying out of the desert, in the IV-III millennia, shepherds from the West gathered along the Nile, which became an African Oasis. But, as the drought increases, especially from 4400, the groups concentrate along the Nile - except for the rainy season, so they practice trekking. These priests put in their tombs some small offerings, makeup plates, dyes, bracelets, and necklaces. At the site of Nabta Playa, in the western desert, the final Neolithic begins around the year 4500, with beautiful polished ceramics, which could take on a curious wavy appearance, often having a black edging. These last two figures will become typical for the ceramics of the Tassa monastery and the Predynastic Dari. But while in the early and middle Neolithic, rare ceramics were placed in tombs without serving (ostrich egg bowls were used, but without a trace of fire), in the last Neolithic, traces of fire indicate that these beautiful polished vases were used. At a nearby site, in the Ramhala mountain, we found the shape of a tulip, but it is noticeably decorated with bands.
Only during the fifth and fourth millennia were economic and social changes directed towards a more hierarchical political system, with the emergence of political centers. And in a necropolis discovered by the archaeologist Flinders Petrie at the end of the 19th century.
Thus, trade in all directions allowed the transition from a plundering economy to a production economy, both late (about 5000), next to Mesopotamia (8000), but then relatively quickly.
Unknown locations
The Umm al-Qura site gives its name to the Umayyads (3800-3500) or the first Naqada. The site of Jerzeya gives its name to the Jerzeyn (3500-3200) or Naqada II. The sites discovered around Hierakonpolis bear the features of the Naqada III Stadium (3300-3100). The Anglo-Saxons applied to the stadium of Naqada III the qualification of fat (referring to the cemetery near Fat).
First Naqada
History
National Archaeological Museum
The Naqada I Culture (3900-3500) [or Amratian, from the umrah site] extends over Upper Egypt. It is represented by many tomb sites located from the north of Abydos to Luxor in the South. The most striking witnesses are Umrah and Naqada. The earlier cultural features, those of the Badari (4400-3800), were greatly exaggerated.
The population inherited the Neolithic culture of the Badari in central Egypt, located about 300 kilometers north, on the Nile River. In the Badari culture, we find the predominance of wild species over cultivated ones, storage in pits, and relatively mobile groups that practice breeding and hunting. Naqada I mainly practiced the cultivation of houseplants, and in a more intensive way. Domesticated animals are also more numerous.
Burials with rectangular pits, some of which are of good size (2.50 × 1.80 m), are provided with rich materials that show remarkable technical progress. There are several types of pottery, some of which have a vase marking. A very beautiful, polished red ceramic with a black edge pre-existed since 4400-3800 in the Badari culture (5500-3800). And others, obvious, can be decorated with various figurative patterns painted in white, representing Nilotic animals (hippos, crocodiles), or steppe savannahs (giraffes, deer, bovids), plants, and always geometric patterns. It should also be noted that such proximity to Badari is manifested in the presence of clay pots painted with the decoration of the boat, the drawing of which will be encountered in Naqada II. Many human figurines are made of clay, and sometimes of Ivory, especially for certain tombs.
The evolution of habitats: large oval huts with a light structure (bathhouse) and well-organized rectangular houses, partly underground, suggests that, next to seasonal installations, larger and stationary centers are being created. In Hierakonpolis (Nakhon, in the center of Upper Egypt, while Naqada is located 170 km to the North), a habitat of scattered small villages that tend to specialize according to their function (artisan habitat, a potter's House has been identified), develops behind a larger center at the exit of a large ravine. There is an elite appearing. The population doubles, from 5,000 to 10,000 inhabitants, between 3,600 and 3,500.
Societies are hierarchical. Along with shepherds and farmers, artisans specializing in pottery appear (many vases bear the marks of potters or owners), but also in stonework (zoomorphic color palette in shale, cut clubs, the first stone vases, more elaborate flint tools). The first tests of Egyptian pottery testify to the mastery of fire techniques, which are little applied to metals, except perhaps gold. Copper, rare, remains as cold as in Badarin. Hunting seems to be a noble and prestigious activity, with a virtual monopoly on representations. The "Fishing Master" seems to be a character with great power. The first Naqada civilization developed a life of important relationships and contacts by the river towards the South (Group "A" of Nubia) and the North (hostile).
Prevalence
This layer of culture is still of local importance, although it is already showing an increasing trend; it is typical for Upper Egypt. Its early stages are as old as the Badari culture (up to 4000 BC, although the first Naqada period may begin with this date). There is no dividing line between the Badari culture and the first Naqada; the transition is continuous and almost imperceptible. The change is indicated by the appearance of foreign bodies, which indicates the start of trade. The chronological overlap is also confirmed by the fact that the early period of Naqada I in the Badari region was poorly developed, but at the same time, Badari culture can be detected even in the Nakhon region. Important monuments have survived in the desert north and west of Thebes and around Abju. It is a small local rural culture in which only small traces of social stratification can be found.
Features
Its clay pots are easily recognizable, at first dark red, reddish-brown, brown, and black, and later with grayish-white or yellow. These colors are the result of the raw materials used. The desert Marly clay produces light (yellow to gray) pottery, while the Nile clay produces dark (red to black) pottery. Black-lidded Ware was manufactured continuously throughout the period. Red pottery with a black surface is simply referred to as" Naqada Ware", which is why Naqada I was separated from Naqada II. The difference in color between the body and the upper part of the vessel was probably caused by the cremation process; the vessel was burned on an open fire while buried in Ashes up to the neck. Pots are usually round jars and round bowls.
In the second half of the era, the production of black-lidded Ware decreased, and it began to spread like a fashion wave as a kind of tableware with a polished surface decorated with parallel white stripes and then intersecting white stripes. They were polished first to black, then to red, and finally, until the end of the era, the use of marl clay became more widespread, the pots became lighter, and the one-color painting became more and more characteristic. They were painted in white or cream color. With the technique of light painting on a dark background, figurative representations are already appearing.
The drawings depict the wildlife of rivers and savannahs in general, mostly vertebrates, but the Scorpion is already shown. Drawings of used objects and tools are rare, although sometimes the ship appears, which will be the characteristic idea of Naqada II. The depiction of people is still strongly stylized; the head is round, the body is a triangle to which chopsticks are attached. Usually, the topic is about hunting or war.
The first rhombic, Oval, and animal paintings, the first known pieces of later painting art, also date from this era. There are also popular paintings in the form of hippos, fish, and Rams, so the topic covers the widest possible range of living creatures. The themes of the paintings are similar to the amulets that appeared at that time. Perhaps even then, they believed in the protective power of statues endowed with magical powers, statuettes.
The tools for their use are usually polished stone tools of a Neolithic nature. Its special feature is that the surface is sanded before the final retouching. The use of copper is widespread, but only cold-forged and forged tools appear. Such copper processing results in brittle and soft brass, so only small objects and jewelry that have been subjected to minimal pressure were made from it. Forked copper spearheads imitate stone tools.
Build
Also during this era, the construction of mud-brick buildings began, which became widespread during the Naqada II period. Finds from houses are very rare. He excavated nine buildings near the village of Al-hamraja. These are round huts for kites, the diameter of which is barely one to two meters. Their floors are covered with Earth, and their walls are 0.3 meters thick of clay. We know nothing about the roof structure. Later, difficult houses were slightly larger, rectangular in shape, half of which were carved into the ground and lined with clay bricks, as well as contemporary tombs. No other residential building from Naqada's first period is yet known.
Burial
Most of the finds come from tombs that were already located outside the settlement. The accessories of the tombs have become richer, but the tombs themselves are shallow pits carved into the sand. Each corpse was laid on its left side, buried in a shrunken position, and turned south, so that its face looked east. In some cases, signs of mutilation can be detected, and in some cases, the head was buried somewhere else. The coffin was not used at first, but the body was wrapped.
Even at this age, wooden and clay coffins appeared. The so-called "pot burial" with coffins also occurs when the coffin—and with it the deceased—is buried in a vertical position. There are a lot of natural mummies among them. The development of animal cults is indicated by the fact that animal cemeteries are common in addition to cemeteries. As a major change in the Lane Cemetery, the square stacked tombs, which already refer to the Abydos tombs of Naqada II and Naqada III, also evolved towards the royal tombs of Umm al-Ja'ab.
The direct and uninterrupted Imperial transformation of Naqada I is indicated by the appearance of death masks in the lihen cemetery by the end of the era. They were made of clay, simple oval and convex bodies with two eye holes, a protruding nose, and a hatch. Sometimes it was referred to the ear. These have remained indispensable burial equipment throughout the entire history of Egypt, the most famous of which is the golden mask of Tutankhamun. The custom of the death mask continued into the Greek era, and the Greeks themselves took it over as early as the Mycenaean era. The first known death mask still belongs to the cremated culture. Four specimens are known from the Tomb of the Difficult Rich.
The situation with funerary statues is similar. At this age, they are still rare; usually, one piece is placed in the grave, and two are already rare, although a collection of sixteen pieces from a grave was discovered. In the second half of the era, bearded triangular forms appeared. These appendices eventually survived in the form of use throughout Egyptian history.
Perhaps the mace heads can be considered as a symbol of power. These are the first flat, disc-shaped. They were made of solid limestone, calcite, and porphyry-textured igneous rocks. These were slowly replaced by Pear and spherical scepters. There are a few signs of social separation, except for the nihint, where the rich and poor already used a separate cemetery during this period.
Political relations and society
The largest settlement at the end of the era was Nakhon, which stretched for four kilometers along the banks of the Nile and was already by about 3600 was apparently the capital of the state. Due to the lack of writing, we know nothing about state regulation or any other characteristic of the state. Perhaps it was at this time that the tripartite power center began to form, which later carried out the unification of Upper Egypt and then the whole of Egypt. The three political centers are Nakhon, Abydos, and Naqada. The necropolis of Naqada was still of local importance at the time of the first necropolis, and the number of burials did not reach the necropolis of Nakhn; however, at the end of the era, it began to jump and became a regional necropolis of the second necropolis, while Nakhn began to deteriorate.
At this age, the second social division of Labor can be seen, the separation of artisans and farmers. This process became possible due to the already existing food surplus, when the supply of craftsmen not involved in direct production becomes available. The quality of handicrafts in the first Naqada already assumes the presence of craftsmen. Food is not yet produced exclusively, but it is supplemented by hunting and fishing.
A few items that could be classified as weapons were found at funerals, many of which concluded that it was a peaceful era, without wars. However, we do not know to what extent the types of weapons that could be used in addition to the scepter could have formed an association with the tombs. Perhaps they were not allowed to enter the tomb because of its value, symbolic nature, or the nature of its use. A bow and a spear were already known, and a copper dagger with an extended blade was also not excluded.
However, the mace heads that appear quite often also do not provide evidence of weapons, since the handle hole drilled in the head is, in most cases, too thin to insert a strong handle, and this is necessary for a mace. Therefore, crosses can also end up in the grave as a status symbol, a ritual object, or a simple symbol of power. However, it was also possible that there were "weak" weapons made specifically for burial. This is also confirmed by the fact that the funeral ceramics also differ from the ceramics already used in the settlements.
